TedTest

From the Ted Talk by Ian Barnes: What archaeology and DNA can teach us about prehistoric migration

Unscramble the Blue Letters

Hello everyone. So, I'm going to talk today about migration and mevonmet, and particularly people moving into the British Isles in the past. And if we think about past migrations into britian, we probably first off might have some ideas about the 20th century, people coming from the Caribbean, from east Africa, or from India, or pkataisn, or places like that. And if we have to go back a bit further in time, of course we've got ppeole like the nnmoras, Romans or the Vikings. But despite the fact that we've nectoid quite a lot of people who have moved into Britain at different times, I don't think we really think of ourselves as a migrant nation. We think of ourselves more outside as an island nation. But what about if we go back really a long way, we really go back far in time beyond the time when there is any notion of a Britain or an England, beyond any kind of english language, in fact beyond written history at all. In fact, we can go so far back in time that Britain is actually not even an island at all. It's still jeiond to the continent, still part of the Eurasian landmass. So that's what I want to talk to you about today, about Britain in prehistory, and the prehistory of migration here. So we're going to take a big jump back in time, but I can't do that with you all in one go. So we are going to take little jumps first. We are going to jump back to the late viacrtion period, and we're going to start off here. Here, we sartt in Somerset at Cheddar gogre. It is here during the last deeadcs of the 19th century, that this guy, Richard Cox Gough, discovered and excavated and blasted out a sereis of caves that he made into a major tusirot aoictrattn or a showcase. But it's actually a year after Richard died that the really big discovery was made, the one we're actually ittneresed in. So that discovery was made in December, 1903, and it was made by Richard's son, Arthur, who was digging a drainage ditch to try to combat the seasonal flooding that they had in the cvaes. They tended to make all their big discoveries in the winter because that's when there weren't any tourists around. So workmen who were working on the cave actually blasted out and uncovered the skeleton of an audlt male. And rather quickly, this slkoeten made big news. Experts of the day said that perhaps it was the body of the first Englishman, and that he was of extreme iportancme, that he was at least 40,000 years old and perhaps as much as 80,000 years old. Well, that's not entirely true. What we actually know today is that "Cheddar Man," as he became known, Is actually about 10,000 years old, but he is still certainly very important. He's extremely important for a number of rsaones. fsltriy because he is the only near-complete skeleton that we have from that kind of time period. He is also important because he's the only one where we have a complete skull or near-complete skull. And here is the skull, in this rather post-setting with the two bhtorres, William and authrr, staring at it. They seem to be enjoying themselves which is what I really like about this pucrtie. (leguathr) So what else do we know about Cheddar Man? Well, he's definitely a man. And that has been the sbujcet of a little bit debate over the years because he has a rather gracile and slneder skeleton. He was probably in his elray twenties when he died; he was beirud deliberately, it seems, and he was buried on his own. toady, he looks something like this. This guy has been better assembled, and you can see him at the Natural History Museum. He is on display a couple of gileaerls away from where my oicffe is. So, we've worked on cehddar Man and a number of other individuals over the years and built together quite a large complex project exploring the htoirsy of the British Isles. And one of the things that came up as the result of that poecjrt was the opportunity to take part in a channel 4 documentary where we were going to eoxlpre Cheddar Man and his history to build up more of a story about him. So that was good because we already had quite a lengthy project wonkrig on the history of the British iless, but what the people who put the documentary together wanted to know about was something a little bit more complicated, more detailed, and that was about his appearance, about his skin color, hair color and eye color. And what we were able to do for them was to supply that information. We passed it on to the people who made the rsnrittcooucen. Well, they came back with this, an individual with a rather small face cmearpod to the overall size of his head, with blue eyes, dark curly hair, and obviously with dark skin. And that was a surprise for some people, for most of the people I talked to actually. And most of them actually seem to think that this was rather cool. People who saw the show generally quite enjoyed it. We weren't particularly surprised by this because similar information had already been generated by a group, a couple of year previously, looking at different skeletons around Europe of a salmiir kind of age. They had already identified that dark skin was practically normal for people about 10,000 years ago. But what we've been able to do was better qaiutnfy exactly how dark that was. And we've done that using a tool borrowed from forensic scceneis. Some people didn't think that this was very cool. Some people I think were expecting to see something a little bit more like this, which is the results of the previous reconstruction. Both reconstructions are obviously quite different, but they do share one fraetue at least which is this rather wispy facial hair. And I'm surprised about that because there's really no evidences either way, from the archeological getinec data, that would tend to actually suggest that. But that is perhaps their only shared feature actually. So those people, who didn't think it was very cool, were a bit sserrpuid, and they made their surprise known on scioal media, as you might epexct. And actually things got rather heated there, and you can look at that. Right now I don't really want to go into too much detail about it. But here's one of the sort of stigllhy odd events that happened there, one of my childhood heoers indirectly ... (Laughter) ... indirectly congratulating me on having upset some people. So that was a little bit weird actually. And that went on for a while. So, what became clear to us was something rather disappointing. As I've already said to you, we had spent quite a bit of time getting a pretty good understanding of what the population history of British Isles actually looks like. So how do you get from someone like this to people in the audience today? I mean Cheddar Man obviously not Billy Bragg! So that's what I'm going to go through now, what we're going to have a look at. Okay, but before we can do that we have to work out how exactly we're going to look at that information. We really have a lot of data here. The human genome has 3.2 billion base pairs and I can't just keep flashing that up because we'd run out of time quite quickly. So what we need to do is find a way of crunching those data down and just pulling out the most important and interesting parts of it. And the method that we often use just to get a handle on the data initially is called the "principal components analysis," and that's what I'm going to show you here. So these are genome data that has been squashed down onto something that looks a bit like a graph or a plot. And so individuals who are close together are genetically similar to each other, regardless of where they might happen to come from. So let's start here with Cheddar Man. But all alone, like he was in Gough's cave, he's not actually doing much for us, he's not telling us very much. So let's put on the other five ilidudvnais from Britain, from which we have very small amounts of genome seueqcned data, and see what happens. What happens then is that they all plot together quite neatly. Despite the fact that we have individuals here from Scotland, Wales and sowtuehst England, they actually all look quite similar to each other. Let's expand the search a bit more across the rest of Europe. What we have here are some more individuals. The ones in blue are older individuals, slightly older ones from slightly earlier time periods. The ones in that kind of dark red color are of a similar age. And these are spemlas that have been taken from Spain, Hungary, gernmay, Sweden, lrubuxmeog, all sorts of places including Britain. And what you see is that the British ones kind of bdgrie the gap between the earlier and later ones. But there's still not much of a picture here. Where we do get a bit of a sirspure is if we jump forward in time a bit more. Okay, so what we have here, about 4000 yares after Cheddar Man died, is that something quite surprising happened in Britain, and that's the origins of farming. So the first farmers had arrived in Europe several thousands years earlier. They had arrived in Greece. They are the red folks on that plot. They'd made they way across Europe over several millennia and evlatnleuy arrived in Britain where we have the grey individuals on the plot. What you can see there about those grey people is that we have two important things to get out of this. They are genetically extremely different to the hunter-gatherers that were in Britain at that time. And they entirely replaced them, a complete rlceenaempt of the population. Now it's always tmpnietg at these points to think of some kind of vast hrode aririnvg and committing some kind of genocidal act on the people, the pcfaeuel hunter-gatherer people. We don't have any evidence for that at all. So what we think in fact is quite plausible is that there were actually remarkably few people in the British Isles at this time. [Farmers] arrive and just take over. And they can easily take over the crnuoty. What is even more spirnursig is that a very similar thing happens about 1300 years later. A second genetically very ditcnist guorp arrives in the British Isles. These are the so-called "Beaker people" who are called that because of the distinctive cmeairc vessels that they're often buried with. These bkeaer people were also genetically very different and seem to completely replace the Neolithic people there, the fmarres that were there before. And this, it seems, is the last major population replacement that we can detect at the resolution that we can work with at the moment, with ancient DNA data. So if we bring up now the modern population across eurpoe, you can see that those Beaker people sit pretty much on top of current British Isles ptonolipuas and, in fact, the populations of northwestern Europe continents in a bit of smear across there as well. Okay, so what can we draw from this? What do we really have to cnucdole here? One of the things that I raeliezd some time after we've done this work and the documentary show was that for some people who are upset by the way we had reconstructed Cheddar Man, the issue was one of population continuity. We had challenged that nitoon that they had that there was a long-term population continuity in Britain. And that's very much not what the data seem to be saying. The history and the prehistory of Britain is one where populations are under a series of replacements. The other thing that you can also draw from this data is about migration and our modern day concerns about mass magritoin and how it affects society. What you can see here is that the scale of migration today, despite the advent of globalization and mass tiortsopnaratn, is nothing like the kind of migrations that we must have had in the past that have led to these very large-scale replacements. Thanks very much. (Applause)

Open Cloze

Hello everyone. So, I'm going to talk today about migration and ________, and particularly people moving into the British Isles in the past. And if we think about past migrations into _______, we probably first off might have some ideas about the 20th century, people coming from the Caribbean, from east Africa, or from India, or ________, or places like that. And if we have to go back a bit further in time, of course we've got ______ like the _______, Romans or the Vikings. But despite the fact that we've _______ quite a lot of people who have moved into Britain at different times, I don't think we really think of ourselves as a migrant nation. We think of ourselves more outside as an island nation. But what about if we go back really a long way, we really go back far in time beyond the time when there is any notion of a Britain or an England, beyond any kind of english language, in fact beyond written history at all. In fact, we can go so far back in time that Britain is actually not even an island at all. It's still ______ to the continent, still part of the Eurasian landmass. So that's what I want to talk to you about today, about Britain in prehistory, and the prehistory of migration here. So we're going to take a big jump back in time, but I can't do that with you all in one go. So we are going to take little jumps first. We are going to jump back to the late _________ period, and we're going to start off here. Here, we _____ in Somerset at Cheddar _____. It is here during the last _______ of the 19th century, that this guy, Richard Cox Gough, discovered and excavated and blasted out a ______ of caves that he made into a major _______ __________ or a showcase. But it's actually a year after Richard died that the really big discovery was made, the one we're actually __________ in. So that discovery was made in December, 1903, and it was made by Richard's son, Arthur, who was digging a drainage ditch to try to combat the seasonal flooding that they had in the _____. They tended to make all their big discoveries in the winter because that's when there weren't any tourists around. So workmen who were working on the cave actually blasted out and uncovered the skeleton of an _____ male. And rather quickly, this ________ made big news. Experts of the day said that perhaps it was the body of the first Englishman, and that he was of extreme __________, that he was at least 40,000 years old and perhaps as much as 80,000 years old. Well, that's not entirely true. What we actually know today is that "Cheddar Man," as he became known, Is actually about 10,000 years old, but he is still certainly very important. He's extremely important for a number of _______. _______ because he is the only near-complete skeleton that we have from that kind of time period. He is also important because he's the only one where we have a complete skull or near-complete skull. And here is the skull, in this rather post-setting with the two ________, William and ______, staring at it. They seem to be enjoying themselves which is what I really like about this _______. (________) So what else do we know about Cheddar Man? Well, he's definitely a man. And that has been the _______ of a little bit debate over the years because he has a rather gracile and _______ skeleton. He was probably in his _____ twenties when he died; he was ______ deliberately, it seems, and he was buried on his own. _____, he looks something like this. This guy has been better assembled, and you can see him at the Natural History Museum. He is on display a couple of _________ away from where my ______ is. So, we've worked on _______ Man and a number of other individuals over the years and built together quite a large complex project exploring the _______ of the British Isles. And one of the things that came up as the result of that _______ was the opportunity to take part in a channel 4 documentary where we were going to _______ Cheddar Man and his history to build up more of a story about him. So that was good because we already had quite a lengthy project _______ on the history of the British _____, but what the people who put the documentary together wanted to know about was something a little bit more complicated, more detailed, and that was about his appearance, about his skin color, hair color and eye color. And what we were able to do for them was to supply that information. We passed it on to the people who made the ______________. Well, they came back with this, an individual with a rather small face ________ to the overall size of his head, with blue eyes, dark curly hair, and obviously with dark skin. And that was a surprise for some people, for most of the people I talked to actually. And most of them actually seem to think that this was rather cool. People who saw the show generally quite enjoyed it. We weren't particularly surprised by this because similar information had already been generated by a group, a couple of year previously, looking at different skeletons around Europe of a _______ kind of age. They had already identified that dark skin was practically normal for people about 10,000 years ago. But what we've been able to do was better ________ exactly how dark that was. And we've done that using a tool borrowed from forensic ________. Some people didn't think that this was very cool. Some people I think were expecting to see something a little bit more like this, which is the results of the previous reconstruction. Both reconstructions are obviously quite different, but they do share one _______ at least which is this rather wispy facial hair. And I'm surprised about that because there's really no evidences either way, from the archeological _______ data, that would tend to actually suggest that. But that is perhaps their only shared feature actually. So those people, who didn't think it was very cool, were a bit _________, and they made their surprise known on ______ media, as you might ______. And actually things got rather heated there, and you can look at that. Right now I don't really want to go into too much detail about it. But here's one of the sort of ________ odd events that happened there, one of my childhood ______ indirectly ... (Laughter) ... indirectly congratulating me on having upset some people. So that was a little bit weird actually. And that went on for a while. So, what became clear to us was something rather disappointing. As I've already said to you, we had spent quite a bit of time getting a pretty good understanding of what the population history of British Isles actually looks like. So how do you get from someone like this to people in the audience today? I mean Cheddar Man obviously not Billy Bragg! So that's what I'm going to go through now, what we're going to have a look at. Okay, but before we can do that we have to work out how exactly we're going to look at that information. We really have a lot of data here. The human genome has 3.2 billion base pairs and I can't just keep flashing that up because we'd run out of time quite quickly. So what we need to do is find a way of crunching those data down and just pulling out the most important and interesting parts of it. And the method that we often use just to get a handle on the data initially is called the "principal components analysis," and that's what I'm going to show you here. So these are genome data that has been squashed down onto something that looks a bit like a graph or a plot. And so individuals who are close together are genetically similar to each other, regardless of where they might happen to come from. So let's start here with Cheddar Man. But all alone, like he was in Gough's cave, he's not actually doing much for us, he's not telling us very much. So let's put on the other five ___________ from Britain, from which we have very small amounts of genome _________ data, and see what happens. What happens then is that they all plot together quite neatly. Despite the fact that we have individuals here from Scotland, Wales and _________ England, they actually all look quite similar to each other. Let's expand the search a bit more across the rest of Europe. What we have here are some more individuals. The ones in blue are older individuals, slightly older ones from slightly earlier time periods. The ones in that kind of dark red color are of a similar age. And these are _______ that have been taken from Spain, Hungary, _______, Sweden, __________, all sorts of places including Britain. And what you see is that the British ones kind of ______ the gap between the earlier and later ones. But there's still not much of a picture here. Where we do get a bit of a ________ is if we jump forward in time a bit more. Okay, so what we have here, about 4000 _____ after Cheddar Man died, is that something quite surprising happened in Britain, and that's the origins of farming. So the first farmers had arrived in Europe several thousands years earlier. They had arrived in Greece. They are the red folks on that plot. They'd made they way across Europe over several millennia and __________ arrived in Britain where we have the grey individuals on the plot. What you can see there about those grey people is that we have two important things to get out of this. They are genetically extremely different to the hunter-gatherers that were in Britain at that time. And they entirely replaced them, a complete ___________ of the population. Now it's always ________ at these points to think of some kind of vast _____ ________ and committing some kind of genocidal act on the people, the ________ hunter-gatherer people. We don't have any evidence for that at all. So what we think in fact is quite plausible is that there were actually remarkably few people in the British Isles at this time. [Farmers] arrive and just take over. And they can easily take over the _______. What is even more __________ is that a very similar thing happens about 1300 years later. A second genetically very ________ _____ arrives in the British Isles. These are the so-called "Beaker people" who are called that because of the distinctive _______ vessels that they're often buried with. These ______ people were also genetically very different and seem to completely replace the Neolithic people there, the _______ that were there before. And this, it seems, is the last major population replacement that we can detect at the resolution that we can work with at the moment, with ancient DNA data. So if we bring up now the modern population across ______, you can see that those Beaker people sit pretty much on top of current British Isles ___________ and, in fact, the populations of northwestern Europe continents in a bit of smear across there as well. Okay, so what can we draw from this? What do we really have to ________ here? One of the things that I ________ some time after we've done this work and the documentary show was that for some people who are upset by the way we had reconstructed Cheddar Man, the issue was one of population continuity. We had challenged that ______ that they had that there was a long-term population continuity in Britain. And that's very much not what the data seem to be saying. The history and the prehistory of Britain is one where populations are under a series of replacements. The other thing that you can also draw from this data is about migration and our modern day concerns about mass _________ and how it affects society. What you can see here is that the scale of migration today, despite the advent of globalization and mass ______________, is nothing like the kind of migrations that we must have had in the past that have led to these very large-scale replacements. Thanks very much. (Applause)

Solution

firstly
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Original Text

Hello everyone. So, I'm going to talk today about migration and movement, and particularly people moving into the British Isles in the past. And if we think about past migrations into Britain, we probably first off might have some ideas about the 20th century, people coming from the Caribbean, from east Africa, or from India, or Pakistan, or places like that. And if we have to go back a bit further in time, of course we've got people like the Normans, Romans or the Vikings. But despite the fact that we've noticed quite a lot of people who have moved into Britain at different times, I don't think we really think of ourselves as a migrant nation. We think of ourselves more outside as an island nation. But what about if we go back really a long way, we really go back far in time beyond the time when there is any notion of a Britain or an England, beyond any kind of english language, in fact beyond written history at all. In fact, we can go so far back in time that Britain is actually not even an island at all. It's still joined to the continent, still part of the Eurasian landmass. So that's what I want to talk to you about today, about Britain in prehistory, and the prehistory of migration here. So we're going to take a big jump back in time, but I can't do that with you all in one go. So we are going to take little jumps first. We are going to jump back to the late Victorian period, and we're going to start off here. Here, we start in Somerset at Cheddar Gorge. It is here during the last decades of the 19th century, that this guy, Richard Cox Gough, discovered and excavated and blasted out a series of caves that he made into a major tourist attraction or a showcase. But it's actually a year after Richard died that the really big discovery was made, the one we're actually interested in. So that discovery was made in December, 1903, and it was made by Richard's son, Arthur, who was digging a drainage ditch to try to combat the seasonal flooding that they had in the caves. They tended to make all their big discoveries in the winter because that's when there weren't any tourists around. So workmen who were working on the cave actually blasted out and uncovered the skeleton of an adult male. And rather quickly, this skeleton made big news. Experts of the day said that perhaps it was the body of the first Englishman, and that he was of extreme importance, that he was at least 40,000 years old and perhaps as much as 80,000 years old. Well, that's not entirely true. What we actually know today is that "Cheddar Man," as he became known, Is actually about 10,000 years old, but he is still certainly very important. He's extremely important for a number of reasons. Firstly because he is the only near-complete skeleton that we have from that kind of time period. He is also important because he's the only one where we have a complete skull or near-complete skull. And here is the skull, in this rather post-setting with the two brothers, William and Arthur, staring at it. They seem to be enjoying themselves which is what I really like about this picture. (Laughter) So what else do we know about Cheddar Man? Well, he's definitely a man. And that has been the subject of a little bit debate over the years because he has a rather gracile and slender skeleton. He was probably in his early twenties when he died; he was buried deliberately, it seems, and he was buried on his own. Today, he looks something like this. This guy has been better assembled, and you can see him at the Natural History Museum. He is on display a couple of galleries away from where my office is. So, we've worked on Cheddar Man and a number of other individuals over the years and built together quite a large complex project exploring the history of the British Isles. And one of the things that came up as the result of that project was the opportunity to take part in a channel 4 documentary where we were going to explore Cheddar Man and his history to build up more of a story about him. So that was good because we already had quite a lengthy project working on the history of the British Isles, but what the people who put the documentary together wanted to know about was something a little bit more complicated, more detailed, and that was about his appearance, about his skin color, hair color and eye color. And what we were able to do for them was to supply that information. We passed it on to the people who made the reconstruction. Well, they came back with this, an individual with a rather small face compared to the overall size of his head, with blue eyes, dark curly hair, and obviously with dark skin. And that was a surprise for some people, for most of the people I talked to actually. And most of them actually seem to think that this was rather cool. People who saw the show generally quite enjoyed it. We weren't particularly surprised by this because similar information had already been generated by a group, a couple of year previously, looking at different skeletons around Europe of a similar kind of age. They had already identified that dark skin was practically normal for people about 10,000 years ago. But what we've been able to do was better quantify exactly how dark that was. And we've done that using a tool borrowed from forensic sciences. Some people didn't think that this was very cool. Some people I think were expecting to see something a little bit more like this, which is the results of the previous reconstruction. Both reconstructions are obviously quite different, but they do share one feature at least which is this rather wispy facial hair. And I'm surprised about that because there's really no evidences either way, from the archeological genetic data, that would tend to actually suggest that. But that is perhaps their only shared feature actually. So those people, who didn't think it was very cool, were a bit surprised, and they made their surprise known on social media, as you might expect. And actually things got rather heated there, and you can look at that. Right now I don't really want to go into too much detail about it. But here's one of the sort of slightly odd events that happened there, one of my childhood heroes indirectly ... (Laughter) ... indirectly congratulating me on having upset some people. So that was a little bit weird actually. And that went on for a while. So, what became clear to us was something rather disappointing. As I've already said to you, we had spent quite a bit of time getting a pretty good understanding of what the population history of British Isles actually looks like. So how do you get from someone like this to people in the audience today? I mean Cheddar Man obviously not Billy Bragg! So that's what I'm going to go through now, what we're going to have a look at. Okay, but before we can do that we have to work out how exactly we're going to look at that information. We really have a lot of data here. The human genome has 3.2 billion base pairs and I can't just keep flashing that up because we'd run out of time quite quickly. So what we need to do is find a way of crunching those data down and just pulling out the most important and interesting parts of it. And the method that we often use just to get a handle on the data initially is called the "principal components analysis," and that's what I'm going to show you here. So these are genome data that has been squashed down onto something that looks a bit like a graph or a plot. And so individuals who are close together are genetically similar to each other, regardless of where they might happen to come from. So let's start here with Cheddar Man. But all alone, like he was in Gough's cave, he's not actually doing much for us, he's not telling us very much. So let's put on the other five individuals from Britain, from which we have very small amounts of genome sequenced data, and see what happens. What happens then is that they all plot together quite neatly. Despite the fact that we have individuals here from Scotland, Wales and southwest England, they actually all look quite similar to each other. Let's expand the search a bit more across the rest of Europe. What we have here are some more individuals. The ones in blue are older individuals, slightly older ones from slightly earlier time periods. The ones in that kind of dark red color are of a similar age. And these are samples that have been taken from Spain, Hungary, Germany, Sweden, Luxembourg, all sorts of places including Britain. And what you see is that the British ones kind of bridge the gap between the earlier and later ones. But there's still not much of a picture here. Where we do get a bit of a surprise is if we jump forward in time a bit more. Okay, so what we have here, about 4000 years after Cheddar Man died, is that something quite surprising happened in Britain, and that's the origins of farming. So the first farmers had arrived in Europe several thousands years earlier. They had arrived in Greece. They are the red folks on that plot. They'd made they way across Europe over several millennia and eventually arrived in Britain where we have the grey individuals on the plot. What you can see there about those grey people is that we have two important things to get out of this. They are genetically extremely different to the hunter-gatherers that were in Britain at that time. And they entirely replaced them, a complete replacement of the population. Now it's always tempting at these points to think of some kind of vast horde arriving and committing some kind of genocidal act on the people, the peaceful hunter-gatherer people. We don't have any evidence for that at all. So what we think in fact is quite plausible is that there were actually remarkably few people in the British Isles at this time. [Farmers] arrive and just take over. And they can easily take over the country. What is even more surprising is that a very similar thing happens about 1300 years later. A second genetically very distinct group arrives in the British Isles. These are the so-called "Beaker people" who are called that because of the distinctive ceramic vessels that they're often buried with. These Beaker people were also genetically very different and seem to completely replace the Neolithic people there, the farmers that were there before. And this, it seems, is the last major population replacement that we can detect at the resolution that we can work with at the moment, with ancient DNA data. So if we bring up now the modern population across Europe, you can see that those Beaker people sit pretty much on top of current British Isles populations and, in fact, the populations of northwestern Europe continents in a bit of smear across there as well. Okay, so what can we draw from this? What do we really have to conclude here? One of the things that I realized some time after we've done this work and the documentary show was that for some people who are upset by the way we had reconstructed Cheddar Man, the issue was one of population continuity. We had challenged that notion that they had that there was a long-term population continuity in Britain. And that's very much not what the data seem to be saying. The history and the prehistory of Britain is one where populations are under a series of replacements. The other thing that you can also draw from this data is about migration and our modern day concerns about mass migration and how it affects society. What you can see here is that the scale of migration today, despite the advent of globalization and mass transportation, is nothing like the kind of migrations that we must have had in the past that have led to these very large-scale replacements. Thanks very much. (Applause)

Frequently Occurring Word Combinations

ngrams of length 2

collocation	frequency
british isles	6
cheddar man	5
dark skin	2
beaker people	2
population continuity	2

Important Words

act
adult
advent
affects
africa
age
amounts
analysis
ancient
appearance
applause
archeological
arrive
arrived
arrives
arriving
arthur
assembled
attraction
audience
base
beaker
big
billion
billy
bit
blasted
blue
body
borrowed
bridge
bring
britain
british
brothers
build
built
buried
called
caribbean
cave
caves
century
ceramic
challenged
channel
cheddar
childhood
clear
close
color
combat
coming
committing
compared
complete
completely
complex
complicated
components
concerns
conclude
congratulating
continent
continents
continuity
cool
country
couple
cox
crunching
curly
current
dark
data
day
debate
decades
december
deliberately
detail
detailed
detect
died
digging
disappointing
discovered
discoveries
discovery
display
distinct
distinctive
ditch
dna
documentary
drainage
draw
earlier
early
easily
east
england
english
englishman
enjoyed
enjoying
eurasian
europe
events
eventually
evidence
evidences
excavated
expand
expect
expecting
experts
explore
exploring
extreme
extremely
eye
eyes
face
facial
fact
farmers
farming
feature
find
firstly
flashing
flooding
folks
forensic
galleries
gap
generally
generated
genetic
genetically
genocidal
genome
germany
globalization
good
gorge
gough
gracile
graph
greece
grey
group
guy
hair
handle
happen
happened
head
heated
heroes
history
horde
human
hungary
ideas
identified
importance
important
including
india
indirectly
individual
individuals
information
initially
interested
interesting
island
isles
issue
joined
jump
jumps
kind
landmass
language
large
late
laughter
led
lengthy
long
lot
luxembourg
major
male
man
mass
media
method
migrant
migration
migrations
millennia
modern
moment
moved
movement
moving
museum
nation
natural
neatly
neolithic
news
normal
normans
northwestern
noticed
notion
number
odd
office
older
opportunity
origins
pairs
pakistan
part
parts
passed
peaceful
people
period
periods
picture
places
plausible
plot
points
population
populations
practically
prehistory
pretty
previous
previously
project
pulling
put
quantify
quickly
realized
reasons
reconstructed
reconstruction
reconstructions
red
remarkably
replace
replaced
replacement
replacements
resolution
rest
result
results
richard
romans
run
samples
scale
sciences
scotland
search
seasonal
sequenced
series
share
shared
show
showcase
similar
sit
size
skeleton
skeletons
skin
skull
slender
slightly
small
smear
social
society
somerset
son
sort
sorts
southwest
spain
spent
squashed
staring
start
story
subject
suggest
supply
surprise
surprised
surprising
sweden
talk
talked
telling
tempting
tend
tended
thousands
time
times
today
tool
top
tourist
tourists
transportation
true
twenties
uncovered
understanding
upset
vast
vessels
victorian
vikings
wales
wanted
weird
william
winter
wispy
work
worked
working
workmen
written
year
years